Theorizing Ecocriticism
Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward a Postmodern Ecocritical Practice
by Serpil Oppermann
ABSTRACT: [Exctract in lieu of an abstract] In a world much burdened with the wide-spread ecological crisis, the emergence of ecocriticism in the academy had signalled a new and a promising hermeneutical horizon in our interpretations and understanding of the natural world and literature. But since its very beginnings in the 1990s, a basic problem has decidedly threatened the expansion of ecocritical practice on theoretical grounds. It is a crisis closely associated with the ecological crisis itself, namely the crisis of the realist epistemology. Being largely confined to the theoretically discredited parameters of literary realism, ecocriticism today finds itself struggling with hermeneutical closure as well as facing an ambivalent openness in its interpretive approach. This paradox is due to the fact that many prominent ecocritics who aligned themselves with the perspectives of realist epistemology, think it enables ecocriticism to be an open field of inquiry. They ignore the conceptual problems the realist perspectives conjure. Those who promote "a realist variety of ecocriticism," to use Dana Phillips's phrase (The Truth 135), to legitimize their study of literature in terms of environmental values, and hence to connect literature with the natural world, fail to understand that no interpretive theory can be conceived of without language occupying its center. It is precisely because of ecocritical underestimation of this fact that much work in this promising field of eco-literary studies does not go beyond simplistic contextual analyses of both literary and environmental texts.
CITATION: Oppermann, Serpil (2006) "Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward a Postmodern Ecocritical Practice", ISLE (Interdisiciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment). 13(2), pp. 103-128.
References
Balibar, Etienne, and Pierre Macherey. "On Literature as an Ideological Form."
Untying the Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader. Ed. Robert Young. 1981. London:
Routledge, 1990. 79-99.
Bennet, Michael. "From Wide Open Spaces to Metropolitan Places: The Urban
Challenge to Ecocriticism." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism, 1993-2003. Ed.
Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P, 2003. 296-317.
Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn. New York: Guilford
P, 1997.
Branch, Michael P., Rochelle Johnson, Daniel Patterson, and Scott Slovic.
Introduction. Reading the Earth: New Directions in the Study of Literature and
Environment. Ed. Michael P. Branch et al. Moscow, ID: U of Idaho P, 1998.
xi-xviii.
Brooks, Peter. "Fiction and its referents: A Reappraisal." Poetics Today A.I (1983):
73-75.
Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the
Formation of American Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1995.
—. "The Ecocritical Insurgency." New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and
Interpretation 30.3 (Summer 1999): 699-712.
Caminero-Santangelo, Byron. "Environmentalism and African Literature: Old
Questions and New Directions." 2004 <http://africa.wisc.edu/ala2004/semi-
nars/theory/carminero-santangelo.pdf>.
Campbell, SueEllen. "The Land and Language of Desire: Where Deep Ecology
and Post-Structuralism Meet." The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary
Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P,
1996.124-36.
Cheney, Jim. "Postmodern Environmental Ethics: Ethics as Bioregional Narra-
tive." Environmental Ethics: Divergence and Convergence. Ed. Susan J. Arm-
strong and Richard G. Botzler. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. 86-95.
Cheryl, Lousley. "Home on the Prairie? A Feminist and Postcolonial Reading
of Sharon Btala, Di Brandt, and Joy Kogawa." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism,
1993-2003. Ed. Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P,
2003. 318-43.
Coetzee, J.M. Foe. London: Penguin, 1987.
Cohen, Michael P. "Blues in the Green: Ecocriticism under Critique." Environ-
mental History 9.1 (January 2004): 9-36.
Cooley, John. "Afterword: Toward an Ecocriticism." Earthly Words: Essays on
Contemporary American Nature and Environmental Writers. Ed. John Cooley.
Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1994. 251-54.
Coupe, Laurence. General Introduction. The Green Studies Reader: From Romanti-
cism to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe. London: Routledge, 2000.1-8.
Crist, Eileen. "Against the Social Construction of Nature and Wilderness."
Environmental Ethics 26.1 (2004): 5-24.
Deleuze, Gilles, and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizo-
phrenia. Trans. Brian Massumi. London: Athlone P, 1992.
Derrida, Jacques. "Differance." Margins of Philosophy. Trans. Alan Bass. New
York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1982. 3-27.
Dillard, Annie. Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. 1974. New York: Perennial Classics,
1999.
Docherty, Thomas. After Theory: Postmodernism/Postmarxism. London: Rout-
ledge, 1990.
Gare, Arran E. Postmodernism and the Environmental Crisis. London: Routledge,
1995.
Gerhardt, Christine. "The Greening of African-American Landscapes: Where
Ecocriticism Meets Post-colonial Theory." The Mississippi Quarterly 55.4
(2002): 515(+19). Expanded Academic Asap. Gale Group Databases. Col-
lege of Staten Island Lib., N.Y. Fall 2002 <http://www.infotrack.galegroup.
com>.
Gifford, Terry. Green Voices: Understanding Contemporary Nature Poetry. Man-
chester: Manchester UP, 1995.
Glotfelty, Cheryll. "Introduction: Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental
Crisis." The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll
Glotfelty and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996. xv-xxxvii.
Handley, George B. "A Postcolonial Sense of Place and the Work of Derek
Walcott: History, Nature, and a Sense of Place." ISLE 7.2 (Summer 2000).
1-23.
Haraway, Donna. Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New
York: Routledge, 1991.
Head, Dominic. "The (im)possibility of Ecocriticism." Writing the Environment:
Ecocriticism and Literature. Ed. Richard Kerridge and Neil Sammells. London:
Zed Books, 1998. 27-39.
Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction. 1988. New
York: Routledge, 1990.
Lease, Gary. "Introduction: Nature Under Fire." Reinventing Nature? Responses
to Postmodern Deconstruction. Ed. Michael E. Soule and Gary Lease. Wash-
ington D.C: Island P, 1995. 3-15.
Lousley, Cheryl. "Home on the Prairie? A Feminist and Postcolonial Reading of
Sharon Butala, Di Brandt, and Joy Kogawa." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism,
1993-2003. Ed. Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P,
2003. 296-317.
Love, Glen A. "Revaluing Nature: Toward an Ecological Criticism." The Ecocriti-
cism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold
Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996. 225-40.
—. Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment. Charlottesville:
U of Virginia P, 2003.
Lundblad, Michael. "Malignant and Beneficent Fictions: Constructing Nature
in Ecocrticism and Achebe's Arrow of God." West Africa Review 3.1 (2001)
<http:// www.africaresource.com/war/vol 3.1 /lundblad.html>.
Marshall, Brenda K. Teaching the Postmodern: Fiction and Theory. New York:
Routledge, 1992.
Mazel, David. Introduction. A Century of Early Ecocriticism. Ed. David Mazel.
Athens: U of Georgia P, 2001.1-19.
—. "Performing 'Wilderness' in The Last of the Mohicans." Reading Under the
Sign of Nature: New Essays in Ecocriticism. Ed. John Tallmadge and Henry
Harrington. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2000.101-14.
Murphy, Patrick D. Literature, Nature, and Other: Ecofeminist Critiques. New York:
State U of New York P, 1995.
—. "The Four Elements and the Recovery of Referentiality: Ecocriticism as
a Pivotal Localist Theory." Studies in the Humanities. 29.1 (2002): 70(+14).
Expanded Academic Asap. Gale Group Databases. College of Staten Island
Lib., N.Y. June 2002 <http://www.infotrack.galegroup.com>.
Myers, Jeffrey. "The Anxiety of Confluence: Evolution, Ecology, and Imperialism
in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." ISLE 8.2 (Summer 2001): 97-108.
Oppermann, Serpil. "Toward an Ecocentric Postmodern Theory: Fusing Deep
Ecology and Quantum Mechanics." The Trumpeter 19.1 (2003): 7-35. <http://
trumpeter.athabascau.ca/content/vl9.1/Oppermann3.pdf>.
Phillips, Dana. "Ecocriticism, Literary Theory, and the Truth of Ecology." New
Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 30.3 (Summer 1999):
577-602.
—. The Truth of Ecology: Nature, Culture, and Literature in America. New York:
Oxford UP, 2003.
Raglon, Rebecca, and Marion Scholtmeijer. "Heading Off the Trail: Language,
Literature, and Nature's Resistance to Narrative." Beyond Nature Writing:
Expanding the Boundaries of Ecocriticism. Ed. Karla Armbruster and Kathleen
R. Wallace. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 2001. 248-62.
Riffaterre, Michael. "Interpretation and Descriptive Poetry: A Reading of
Wordsworth's 'Yew Trees'." Untying the Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader.
Ed. Robert Young. 1981. London: Routledge, 1990.103-32.
Rosendale, Steven. "Introduction: Extending Ecocriticism." The Greening of Liter-
ary Scholarship: Literature, Theory, and the Environment. Ed. Steven Rosendale.
Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 2002. xv-xxix.
Rueckert, William. "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism."
The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty
and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996.105-23.
—. " Barry Lopez and the Search for a Dignified and Honorable Relationship
with Nature." Earthly Words: Essays on Contemporary American Nature and
Environmental Writers. Ed. John Cooley. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1994.
137-64.
Silverman, Hugh J. Textualities: Between Hermeneutics and Deconstruction. New
York: Routledge, 1994.
Slovic, Scott. "Ecocriticism: Containing Multitudes, Practicing Doctrine." The
Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe.
London: Routledge, 2000.160-62.
Smith, Carlton. Coyote Kills John Wayne: Postmodernism and Contemporary Fictions
of the Transcultural Frontier. Hanover, NH: UP of New England, 2000.
Soper, Kate. "The Idea of Nature." The Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism
to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe. London: Routledge, 2000.123-126.
Soule, Michael E. "The Social Siege of Nature." Reinventing Nature? Responses
to Postmodern Reconstruction. Ed. Michael E. Soule and Gary Lease. Wash-
ington D.C: Island P, 1995.137-70.
Sukenick, Ronald. "An Interview with Ronald Sukenick." By Larry McCaffery.
Anything Can Happen: Interviews with Contemporary American Novelists. Ed.
Tom LeClair and Larry McCaffery. Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1983. 279-297.
—. Out. Chicago: Swallow P, 1973.
Tallmadge, John, and Henry Harrington. Introduction. Reading Under the Sign
of Nature: New Essays in Ecocriticism. Ed. John Tallmadge and Henry Har-
rington. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2000. ix-xv.
White, Daniel R. Postmodern Ecology: Communication, Evolution, and Play. New
York: State U of New York P, 1998.
Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction.
London: Methuen, 1984.
—. Practising Postmodernism/Reading Modernism. London: Edward Arnold,
1992.
by Serpil Oppermann
ABSTRACT: [Exctract in lieu of an abstract] In a world much burdened with the wide-spread ecological crisis, the emergence of ecocriticism in the academy had signalled a new and a promising hermeneutical horizon in our interpretations and understanding of the natural world and literature. But since its very beginnings in the 1990s, a basic problem has decidedly threatened the expansion of ecocritical practice on theoretical grounds. It is a crisis closely associated with the ecological crisis itself, namely the crisis of the realist epistemology. Being largely confined to the theoretically discredited parameters of literary realism, ecocriticism today finds itself struggling with hermeneutical closure as well as facing an ambivalent openness in its interpretive approach. This paradox is due to the fact that many prominent ecocritics who aligned themselves with the perspectives of realist epistemology, think it enables ecocriticism to be an open field of inquiry. They ignore the conceptual problems the realist perspectives conjure. Those who promote "a realist variety of ecocriticism," to use Dana Phillips's phrase (The Truth 135), to legitimize their study of literature in terms of environmental values, and hence to connect literature with the natural world, fail to understand that no interpretive theory can be conceived of without language occupying its center. It is precisely because of ecocritical underestimation of this fact that much work in this promising field of eco-literary studies does not go beyond simplistic contextual analyses of both literary and environmental texts.
CITATION: Oppermann, Serpil (2006) "Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward a Postmodern Ecocritical Practice", ISLE (Interdisiciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment). 13(2), pp. 103-128.
References
Balibar, Etienne, and Pierre Macherey. "On Literature as an Ideological Form."
Untying the Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader. Ed. Robert Young. 1981. London:
Routledge, 1990. 79-99.
Bennet, Michael. "From Wide Open Spaces to Metropolitan Places: The Urban
Challenge to Ecocriticism." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism, 1993-2003. Ed.
Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P, 2003. 296-317.
Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn. New York: Guilford
P, 1997.
Branch, Michael P., Rochelle Johnson, Daniel Patterson, and Scott Slovic.
Introduction. Reading the Earth: New Directions in the Study of Literature and
Environment. Ed. Michael P. Branch et al. Moscow, ID: U of Idaho P, 1998.
xi-xviii.
Brooks, Peter. "Fiction and its referents: A Reappraisal." Poetics Today A.I (1983):
73-75.
Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the
Formation of American Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1995.
—. "The Ecocritical Insurgency." New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and
Interpretation 30.3 (Summer 1999): 699-712.
Caminero-Santangelo, Byron. "Environmentalism and African Literature: Old
Questions and New Directions." 2004 <http://africa.wisc.edu/ala2004/semi-
nars/theory/carminero-santangelo.pdf>.
Campbell, SueEllen. "The Land and Language of Desire: Where Deep Ecology
and Post-Structuralism Meet." The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary
Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P,
1996.124-36.
Cheney, Jim. "Postmodern Environmental Ethics: Ethics as Bioregional Narra-
tive." Environmental Ethics: Divergence and Convergence. Ed. Susan J. Arm-
strong and Richard G. Botzler. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. 86-95.
Cheryl, Lousley. "Home on the Prairie? A Feminist and Postcolonial Reading
of Sharon Btala, Di Brandt, and Joy Kogawa." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism,
1993-2003. Ed. Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P,
2003. 318-43.
Coetzee, J.M. Foe. London: Penguin, 1987.
Cohen, Michael P. "Blues in the Green: Ecocriticism under Critique." Environ-
mental History 9.1 (January 2004): 9-36.
Cooley, John. "Afterword: Toward an Ecocriticism." Earthly Words: Essays on
Contemporary American Nature and Environmental Writers. Ed. John Cooley.
Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1994. 251-54.
Coupe, Laurence. General Introduction. The Green Studies Reader: From Romanti-
cism to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe. London: Routledge, 2000.1-8.
Crist, Eileen. "Against the Social Construction of Nature and Wilderness."
Environmental Ethics 26.1 (2004): 5-24.
Deleuze, Gilles, and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizo-
phrenia. Trans. Brian Massumi. London: Athlone P, 1992.
Derrida, Jacques. "Differance." Margins of Philosophy. Trans. Alan Bass. New
York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1982. 3-27.
Dillard, Annie. Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. 1974. New York: Perennial Classics,
1999.
Docherty, Thomas. After Theory: Postmodernism/Postmarxism. London: Rout-
ledge, 1990.
Gare, Arran E. Postmodernism and the Environmental Crisis. London: Routledge,
1995.
Gerhardt, Christine. "The Greening of African-American Landscapes: Where
Ecocriticism Meets Post-colonial Theory." The Mississippi Quarterly 55.4
(2002): 515(+19). Expanded Academic Asap. Gale Group Databases. Col-
lege of Staten Island Lib., N.Y. Fall 2002 <http://www.infotrack.galegroup.
com>.
Gifford, Terry. Green Voices: Understanding Contemporary Nature Poetry. Man-
chester: Manchester UP, 1995.
Glotfelty, Cheryll. "Introduction: Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental
Crisis." The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll
Glotfelty and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996. xv-xxxvii.
Handley, George B. "A Postcolonial Sense of Place and the Work of Derek
Walcott: History, Nature, and a Sense of Place." ISLE 7.2 (Summer 2000).
1-23.
Haraway, Donna. Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New
York: Routledge, 1991.
Head, Dominic. "The (im)possibility of Ecocriticism." Writing the Environment:
Ecocriticism and Literature. Ed. Richard Kerridge and Neil Sammells. London:
Zed Books, 1998. 27-39.
Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction. 1988. New
York: Routledge, 1990.
Lease, Gary. "Introduction: Nature Under Fire." Reinventing Nature? Responses
to Postmodern Deconstruction. Ed. Michael E. Soule and Gary Lease. Wash-
ington D.C: Island P, 1995. 3-15.
Lousley, Cheryl. "Home on the Prairie? A Feminist and Postcolonial Reading of
Sharon Butala, Di Brandt, and Joy Kogawa." The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism,
1993-2003. Ed. Michael P. Branch and Scott Slovic. Athens: U of Georgia P,
2003. 296-317.
Love, Glen A. "Revaluing Nature: Toward an Ecological Criticism." The Ecocriti-
cism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold
Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996. 225-40.
—. Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment. Charlottesville:
U of Virginia P, 2003.
Lundblad, Michael. "Malignant and Beneficent Fictions: Constructing Nature
in Ecocrticism and Achebe's Arrow of God." West Africa Review 3.1 (2001)
<http:// www.africaresource.com/war/vol 3.1 /lundblad.html>.
Marshall, Brenda K. Teaching the Postmodern: Fiction and Theory. New York:
Routledge, 1992.
Mazel, David. Introduction. A Century of Early Ecocriticism. Ed. David Mazel.
Athens: U of Georgia P, 2001.1-19.
—. "Performing 'Wilderness' in The Last of the Mohicans." Reading Under the
Sign of Nature: New Essays in Ecocriticism. Ed. John Tallmadge and Henry
Harrington. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2000.101-14.
Murphy, Patrick D. Literature, Nature, and Other: Ecofeminist Critiques. New York:
State U of New York P, 1995.
—. "The Four Elements and the Recovery of Referentiality: Ecocriticism as
a Pivotal Localist Theory." Studies in the Humanities. 29.1 (2002): 70(+14).
Expanded Academic Asap. Gale Group Databases. College of Staten Island
Lib., N.Y. June 2002 <http://www.infotrack.galegroup.com>.
Myers, Jeffrey. "The Anxiety of Confluence: Evolution, Ecology, and Imperialism
in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." ISLE 8.2 (Summer 2001): 97-108.
Oppermann, Serpil. "Toward an Ecocentric Postmodern Theory: Fusing Deep
Ecology and Quantum Mechanics." The Trumpeter 19.1 (2003): 7-35. <http://
trumpeter.athabascau.ca/content/vl9.1/Oppermann3.pdf>.
Phillips, Dana. "Ecocriticism, Literary Theory, and the Truth of Ecology." New
Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 30.3 (Summer 1999):
577-602.
—. The Truth of Ecology: Nature, Culture, and Literature in America. New York:
Oxford UP, 2003.
Raglon, Rebecca, and Marion Scholtmeijer. "Heading Off the Trail: Language,
Literature, and Nature's Resistance to Narrative." Beyond Nature Writing:
Expanding the Boundaries of Ecocriticism. Ed. Karla Armbruster and Kathleen
R. Wallace. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 2001. 248-62.
Riffaterre, Michael. "Interpretation and Descriptive Poetry: A Reading of
Wordsworth's 'Yew Trees'." Untying the Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader.
Ed. Robert Young. 1981. London: Routledge, 1990.103-32.
Rosendale, Steven. "Introduction: Extending Ecocriticism." The Greening of Liter-
ary Scholarship: Literature, Theory, and the Environment. Ed. Steven Rosendale.
Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 2002. xv-xxix.
Rueckert, William. "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism."
The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Ed. Cheryll Glotfelty
and Harold Fromm. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1996.105-23.
—. " Barry Lopez and the Search for a Dignified and Honorable Relationship
with Nature." Earthly Words: Essays on Contemporary American Nature and
Environmental Writers. Ed. John Cooley. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1994.
137-64.
Silverman, Hugh J. Textualities: Between Hermeneutics and Deconstruction. New
York: Routledge, 1994.
Slovic, Scott. "Ecocriticism: Containing Multitudes, Practicing Doctrine." The
Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe.
London: Routledge, 2000.160-62.
Smith, Carlton. Coyote Kills John Wayne: Postmodernism and Contemporary Fictions
of the Transcultural Frontier. Hanover, NH: UP of New England, 2000.
Soper, Kate. "The Idea of Nature." The Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism
to Ecocriticism. Ed. Laurence Coupe. London: Routledge, 2000.123-126.
Soule, Michael E. "The Social Siege of Nature." Reinventing Nature? Responses
to Postmodern Reconstruction. Ed. Michael E. Soule and Gary Lease. Wash-
ington D.C: Island P, 1995.137-70.
Sukenick, Ronald. "An Interview with Ronald Sukenick." By Larry McCaffery.
Anything Can Happen: Interviews with Contemporary American Novelists. Ed.
Tom LeClair and Larry McCaffery. Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1983. 279-297.
—. Out. Chicago: Swallow P, 1973.
Tallmadge, John, and Henry Harrington. Introduction. Reading Under the Sign
of Nature: New Essays in Ecocriticism. Ed. John Tallmadge and Henry Har-
rington. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2000. ix-xv.
White, Daniel R. Postmodern Ecology: Communication, Evolution, and Play. New
York: State U of New York P, 1998.
Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction.
London: Methuen, 1984.
—. Practising Postmodernism/Reading Modernism. London: Edward Arnold,
1992.
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